Showing posts with label Surrealism. Show all posts
Showing posts with label Surrealism. Show all posts

Sunday, May 14, 2017

Bill Viola - Artist Biography



ARTIST BIOGRAPHY

Bill Viola (b.1951) is internationally recognized as one of today’s leading artists. He has been instrumental in the establishment of video as a vital form of contemporary art, and in so doing has helped to greatly expand its scope in terms of technology, content, and historical reach. For 40 years he has created videotapes, architectural video installations, sound environments, electronic music performances, flat panel video pieces, and works for television broadcast. Viola’s video installations—total environments that envelop the viewer in image and sound—employ state-of-the-art technologies and are distinguished by their precision and direct simplicity. They are shown in museums and galleries worldwide and are found in many distinguished collections. His single channel videotapes have been widely broadcast and presented cinematically, while his writings have been extensively published, and translated for international readers. Viola uses video to explore the phenomena of sense perception as an avenue to self-knowledge. His works focus on universal human experiences—birth, death, the unfolding of consciousness—and have roots in both Eastern and Western art as well as spiritual traditions, including Zen Buddhism, Islamic Sufism, and Christian mysticism. Using the inner language of subjective thoughts and collective memories, his videos communicate to a wide audience, allowing viewers to experience the work directly, and in their own personal way.

Bill Viola received his BFA in Experimental Studios from Syracuse University in 1973 where he studied visual art with Jack Nelson and electronic music with Franklin Morris. During the 1970s he lived for 18 months in Florence, Italy, as technical director of production for Art/Tapes/22, one of the first video art studios in Europe, and then traveled widely to study and record traditional performing arts in the Solomon Islands, Java, Bali, and Japan. Viola was invited to be artist-in-residence at the WNET Channel 13 Television Laboratory in New York from 1976-1980 where he created a series of works, many of which were premiered on television. In 1977 Viola was invited to show his videotapes at La Trobe University (Melbourne, Australia) by cultural arts director Kira Perov who, a year later, joined him in New York where they married and began a lifelong collaboration working and traveling together.

In 1979 Viola and Perov traveled to the Sahara desert, Tunisia to record mirages. The following year Viola was awarded a U.S./Japan Creative Artist Fellowship and they lived in Japan for a year and a half where they studied Zen Buddhism with Master Daien Tanaka, and Viola became the first artist-in-residence at Sony Corporation’s Atsugi research laboratories. Viola and Perov returned to the U. S. at the end of 1981 and settled in Long Beach, California, initiating projects to create art works based on medical imaging technologies of the human body at a local hospital, animal consciousness at the San Diego Zoo, and fire walking rituals among the Hindu communities in Fiji. In 1987 they traveled for five months throughout the American Southwest photographing Native American rock art sites, and recording nocturnal desert landscapes with a series of specialized video cameras. More recently, at the end of 2005, they journeyed with their two sons to Dharamsala, India to record a prayer blessing with the Dalai Lama.

Music has always been an important part of Viola’s life and work. From 1973-1980 he performed with avant-garde composer David Tudor as a member of his Rainforest ensemble, later called Composers Inside Electronics. Viola has also created videos to accompany music compositions including 20th century composer Edgard Varèse’ Déserts in 1994 with the Ensemble Modern, and, in 2000, a three-song video suite for the rock group Nine Inch Nails’ world tour. In 2004 Viola began collaborating with director Peter Sellars and conductor Esa-Pekka Salonen to create a new production of Richard Wagner’s opera, Tristan und Isolde, which was presented in project form by the Los Angeles Philharmonic in December 2004, and later at the Lincoln Center for the Performing Arts, New York (2007). The complete opera received its world premiere at the Opéra National de Paris, Bastille in April 2005.

Since the early 1970s Viola’s video art works have been seen all over the world. Exhibitions include Bill Viola: Installations and Videotapes, Museum of Modern Art, New York, 1987; Bill Viola: Unseen Images, seven installations toured six venues in Europe, 1992-1994, organized by the Kunsthalle Düsseldorf and Kira Perov. Viola represented the U.S. at the 46th Venice Biennale in 1995 with Buried Secrets, a series of five new installation works. In 1997 the Whitney Museum of American Art organized Bill Viola: A 25-Year Survey that included over 35 installations and videotapes and traveled for two years to six museums in the United States and Europe. In 2002 Viola completed his most ambitious project, Going Forth By Day, a five part projected digital “fresco” cycle, his first work in High-Definition video, commissioned by the Deutsche Guggenheim Berlin and the Guggenheim Museum, New York. Bill Viola: The Passions, a new series inspired by late medieval and early Renaissance art, was exhibited at the J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles in 2003 then traveled to the National Gallery, London, the Fondación “La Caixa” in Madrid and the National Gallery of Australia, Canberra. One of the largest exhibitions of Viola’s installations to date, Bill Viola: Hatsu-Yume (First Dream) (2006-2007), drew over 340,000 visitors to the Mori Art Museum in Tokyo. In 2007 nine installations were shown at the Zahenta National Gallery of Art, Warsaw; and Ocean Without a shore was created for the 15th century Church of San Gallo during the Venice Biennale. In 2008 Bill Viola: Visioni interiori, a survey exhibition organized by Kira Perov, was presented in Rome at the Palazzo delle Esposizioni. In 2014, twenty works were shown at the Grand Palais, Paris, in his largest survey exhibition to date, and a few months later, part one of the St. Paul’s commission was installed in the London cathedral, Martyrs (Earth, Air, Fire, Water).

Viola has received numerous awards for his achievements, including the MacArthur Foundation Fellowship (1989), XXI Catalonia International Prize (2009), and the Praemium Imperiale from the Japan Art Association (2011).

above copied from: http://www.billviola.com/biograph.htm/

Andre Breton - Philosopher, Artist, Publisher, Author, Editor, Journalist, Poet, Literary Critic



French writer and poet André Breton is best known as one of the founders of the Surrealist movement in literature and art.

“I believe in the future resolution of these two states, dream and and reality, which are seemingly so contradictory, into a kind of absolute reality, a surreality.” —André Breton

 Synopsis

 André Breton was born on February 18, 1896, in Tinchebray, France. After a brief medical career and military service in World War I, he settled in Paris and joined the city's artistic avant-garde. In the early 1920s he became one of the founders of the Surrealist movement. He wrote a Surrealist manifesto encouraging free expression and the release of the subconscious mind, followed by the novel Nadja and volumes of essays and poetry. He died in Paris in 1966.

Early Career and Influences

André Breton was born into a working-class family on February 18, 1896, in Tinchebray, a small town in Normandy, France. As a young man, he attended medical school, taking a particular interest in the study of mental illness. When his education was interrupted by his service in World War I, he worked in the psychiatric wards of military hospitals. He also read the writings of famous psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud, whom he would meet in 1921.

Breton was also interested in the work of Symbolist poets like Arthur Rimbaud and Charles Baudelaire, and in the political theory of Karl Marx. He soon came into contact with other aspiring writers who shared his interests, including Guillaume Apollinaire. In 1916, Breton joined the group of artists associated with the subversive Dada movement in Paris, including Marcel Duchamp and Man Ray.

The Surrealist Movement

By the early 1920s, however, Breton had shifted his allegiance to another group of intellectuals who would become known as the Surrealists. In 1924, he published Le Manifeste du Surréalisme (The Manifesto of Surrealism), a document announcing the new movement's embrace of all forms of liberated expression and its rejection of social and moral conventions. The Surrealists were fascinated by the fine line between reason and irrationality, especially as manifested in dreams, erotica and mental disorders. They encouraged writers and artists to adopt spontaneous means of expression such as free association and a stream-of-conscious method called "automatism."

Breton was one of the co-founders of Littérature, an influential journal that featured the first written example of automatism, titled Les Champs magnétiques (The Magnetic Fields). He also promoted visual artists such as Pablo Picasso, Joan Miró and Max Ernst by reproducing their work in the journal La Révolution Surréaliste (The Surrealist Revolution).

In the 1920s and '30s, Breton composed two more Surrealist manifestos and other texts about Surrealism, including Les Vases Communicants (The Communicating Vessels) and Qu'est-ce le que le Surréalisme? (What is Surrealism?). He also wrote poetry and fiction. His most famous novel, Nadja (1928), is a fantastical love story between the narrator and a mysterious, possibly insane, woman. L'Amour Fou (Mad Love), published in 1937, is a poetic meditation on obsessive love.

Breton's commitment to Marxism led him to join the French Communist Party in 1927. Although he left the party in 1935, he remained dedicated to Marxist philosophy. In 1938, he traveled to Mexico, where he and revolutionary leader Leon Trotsky collaborated on "Manifesto for an Independent Revolutionary Art," which examines art's connection to social upheaval.

Travels and Later Work

Breton emigrated from France in 1941 in order to escape World War II. He lived in New York City for several years, and in 1942, he organized a groundbreaking exhibition of Surrealist art at Yale University. After his return to Paris in 1946, Breton published more poetry collections and essays on Surrealism.

Breton married three times, to Simone Kahn, Jacqueline Lamba (with whom he had a daughter named Aube) and Elisa Claro. In his later years, he divided his time between a country house in southwest France and an apartment in Paris. He died in Paris on September 28, 1966.


above copied from: http://www.biography.com/people/andr%C3%A9-breton-37471/

Surrealism - Examples and Definitions



Definition of Surrealism

The term surrealism indicates a specific thought and movement in literature, the arts, and theatre, which tries to integrate the confused realms of imagination and reality. The proponents of surrealism endeavor to mix up the differences of conscious and unconscious thought through writing and painting by using irrational juxtaposition of images.

 Initiated by André Breton (1896-1966), surrealism is a kind of artistic movement started in the French capital, Paris, during the 1920s. This movement lasted until the 1940s. Breton, a famous writer as well as a philosopher, boosted this movement further by publishing his manifesto, “The Manifesto of Surrealism.”

 Although it gave new dimensions to art, it was not a political manifesto. The manifesto states that, horrified by the destruction caused by the world wars and subsequent confusion, art and literature faced numerous political challenges in resolving those confusions, the reaction of which emerged in the shape of surrealism. This movement rather aimed at preventing bloody revolutions by breaking the limitations placed on arts and literature by the politics of that time.

 Examples of Surrealism in Literature

Example #1: Freedom Of Love (By Andre Breton) “My wife with the hair of a wood fire With the thoughts of heat lightning With the waist of an hourglass With the waist of an otter in the teeth of a tiger My wife with the lips of a cockade and of a bunch of stars of the last magnitude With the teeth of tracks of white mice on the white earth With the tongue of rubbed amber and glass My wife with the tongue of a stabbed host.” (Lines 1-8) This is one of the best examples of surrealist poetry by Andre Breton. These lines have been taken from his poem “Freedom of Love.” See the irrationality in images about his wife and a wood fire, an hourglass, and teeth of a tiger. None of these images have any relation. They have been just irrationally put together to demonstrate the mind of the poet, and a situation of the reality in which he is living.

 Example #2: Dark Poet (by Antonin Artaud) “Dark Poet, a maid’s breast Haunts you, Embittered poet, life seethes And life burns, And the sky reabsorbs itself in rain, Your pen scratches at the heart of life.” (Lines 1-6) These lines have been taken from poem “Dark Poet” by Antonin Artaud. This poem juxtaposes the poet with the breasts that is quite irrational and hence surreal.

 Example #3: A Season in Hell (by Arthur Rimbaud) “A while back, if I remember right, my life was one long party where all hearts were open wide, where all wines kept flowing. One night, I sat Beauty down on my lap.—And I found her galling.—And I roughed her up. I armed myself against justice. I ran away. O witches, O misery, O hatred, my treasure’s been turned over to you! (Lines 1-5) Just check the images presented in the first few lines of this poem by Arthur Rimbaud. These are contradictory and irrational images. That is why “A Season in Hell” is one of the best surreal poems. 

Example #4: Hidden Faces (by Salvador Dali, translated by Chevalier) “Then an unheard-of being, unheard-of beings, will be seen to rise, their brains compressed by sonorous helmets, their temples pierced by the whistling of air waves, their bodies naked, turned yellow by fever, pocked by deep vegetal stigmata swarming with insects and filled to the brim with the slimy juices of venom, overflowing and running down a skin tiger-striped and leopard-spotted by the gangrene of wounds and the leprosy of camouflage, their swollen bellies plugged to death by electric umbilical chords [sic] tangling with the ignominiousness of torn intestines and bits of flesh, roasting in the burning steel carapaces of the punitive tortures of gutted tanks.

 That is man! Backs of lead, sexual organs of fire, fears of mica, chemical hearts of the televisions of blood, hidden faces and wings — always wings, the north and south of our being!”

 This excerpt has been taken from “Hidden Faces,” a novel by Salvador Dali. it uses irrational images to describe a person.

 Function of Surrealism
Life became topsy-turvy after two world wars. Literature and art faced the dilemma of presenting this topsy-turvy state of mind in words or colors. The artists and writers of that time tried to resolve this situation by presenting strange and shocking images in their writings and paintings. This technique of presenting images helps the readers and the audiences connect with the confused state of mind of that time, and of the people living after the two world wars. Surrealism is a representation of this confusion. It makes people aware of bizarre reality around them. They connect themselves with this reality and become familiar with it.
above copied from: https://literarydevices.net/surrealism//

Surrealist Writing Techniques



The dream narratives, the exquisite corpses and writing under hypnosis are all the others techniques used by the Surrealists to combine happenstance and unconsciousness into writing.

 AUTOMATIC WRITING

 Practiced by most surrealist writers, automatic writing is about leaving free field in the brain, writing every spontaneous thought down on paper before logic takes over and rephrases it. The more passive the writer is, the more automatic the writing will be – that’s at least what Breton, who experimented with this process in 1913, affirms, almost a decade before the beginnings of Surrealism. His text Magnetic Fields, published in 1920, was also almost completely written according to the process of automatic writing. Closely linked to the interest André Breton has on psychoanalysis and Freud's theories, automatic writing must make the subconscious speak, and even the unconscious, before the Id, ego, and super ego, psychic portion of each man subject to pressures and social restrictions, take over it. The resulting writing, sometimes transcendent, does not remain at least without an absurd side, which defies logic. In this sense, it approaches the 'Pataphysics of Alfred Jarry, science theorizing reconstruction of reality in the absurd. Jarry, held in high esteem by the Surrealists, and especially by André Breton - who said the playwright was a real surrealist, because of his absinthe consumption but also because of his vision of the world – it’s not so far from the surrealists in his deliberately absurd writing, which claims, for instance: "God is the shortest path from zero to infinity, in one way or another."

 NARRATIVE OF DREAMS AND WRITING UNDER HYPNOSIS

As automatic writing, the dream narratives, under hypnosis, or even under the influence (of drugs, alcohol) are intended to eliminate the possible control of the flow of writing. The writer finds themselves completely unrestricted in their possibilities. Several surrealist authors, again intrigued by the psychoanalytic theories of the time, were interested in the relationship between dream narratives and the "common thread" connecting them to reality.

 EXQUISITE CORPSE

The only rule of this playful writing technique, widely adopted today as a game, in all contexts, is to follow the grammatical form: noun, adjective, verb, and direct object, adjective.. On a folded sheet, where participants cannot see the word written by the previous player, they must write a word of their choice that respects the order shown above. Wacky phrases are obtained, such as that which gave the game its name ("The exquisite corpse will drink the new wine") or even "White bread will shake the oblong breast laughing." This exquisite corpse is also one of the first obtained: in the first meeting of the Surrealists where the game is played, André Breton, Jacques Herold, Victor Brauner, Yves Tanguy, Peret and Elsie Houston are present. Behind this "objective chance" seemingly harmless, obviously hides a pleasing deeper reflection: opposite to automatic writing, where the writer plays alone with their unconscious, and therefore closer to psychoanalysis, the exquisite corpse allows both real intrusion of chance in writing as well as the discovery, purely poetic, of new combinations of unthought words.

 TECHNIQUES THAT SPAN THE MEDIA

The automatism, the role of chance and the unconscious are not exclusive features of the surrealist literature: they are also found in all other types of art that affect this movement. Automatic writing finds its equivalent in the automatic drawing, practiced for example by André Masson, French painter of the years 1920-1950. The exquisite corpse, too, is as well practiced with words as with body parts! Max Ernst's collages or the photosensitive works of Man Ray also recall the patched appearance of the exquisite corpse.
above copied from: http://www.surrealismart.org/history/writing-techniques.html/

A Brief Guide to Surrealism



Surrealism emerged as the direct result of the publication of André Breton’s first Le Manifeste du Surréalisme (Manifesto of Surrealism) (1924). In this manifesto, Breton presented two definitions of surrealism: SURREALISM, noun, masc., Pure psychic automatism by which it is intended to express, either verbally or in writing, the true function of thought. Thought dictated in the absence of all control exerted by reason, and outside all aesthetic or moral preoccupations. ENCYCL. Philos. Surrealism is based on the belief in the superior reality of certain forms of association heretofore neglected, in the omnipotence of the dream, and in the disinterested play of thought. It leads to the permanent destruction of all other psychic mechanisms and to its substitution for them in the solution of the principal problems of life. The first definition speaks to the surrealist methodology—the use of techniques, such as automatic writing, self-induced hallucinations, and word games like the exquisite corpse to make manifest repressed mental activities. The second definition lays out the surrealist view of reality and expresses the surrealist’s desire to open the vistas of the arts through the close observation of the dream state and the free play of thought. The roots of surrealism can be traced back to Charles Baudelaire, Arthur Rimbaud, and Isidore Ducasse, also known as Comte de Lautréamont. Surrealists also found inspiration in the poetic methods, such as calligrammatic poetry, used by Stéphane Mallarmé and Guillaume Apollinaire. The first text that took up the banner of surrealism and used automatic writing as its methodology was Les Champs magnétiques (The Magnetic Fields), penned collaboratively by Breton and Philippe Soupault. The surrealist coalition that formed around Breton included such young French poets as Louis Aragon, Antonin Artaud, René Crevel, Robert Desnos, Paul Éluard, Michel Leiris, Benjamin Péret, and eventually the Dadaist Tristan Tzara. The group’s membership fluctuated due to changes in ideology and personality clashes. During this time several journals served as a space for the expression of the growing surrealist ideals, journals such as Révolution surréaliste (1924-29), Le Surréalisme au service de la révolution (1930-33), and Minotaure (1933-39). A second generation of surrealists included René Char, Aimé Césaire, and David Gascogne. The final stage of surrealism began after the end of World War II. By this point surrealism had disseminated around the world in various diluted forms. The far-flung practitioners were held together by their use of personal juxtapositions, placing distant realities together, so that the interconnections between them were only apparent to the creator.
above copied from: https://www.poets.org/poetsorg/text/brief-guide-surrealism/

Surrealist Writers



Surrealism is a movement in literature and art whose effective life is generally assigned the years 1924-1945 by historians. In 1924, André Breton's first Manifesto of Surrealism appeared, defining the movement in philosophical and psychological terms. Its immediate predecessor was Dada, whose nihilistic reaction to rationalism and the reigning "morality" that produced World War I cleared the way for Surrealism's positive message. (Other precursors and influences are listed below.) Surrealism is often characterized only by its use of unusual, sometimes startling juxtapositions, by which it sought to trancend logic and habitual thinking to reveal deeper levels of meaning and unconscious associations. Thus it was instrumental in promoting Freudian and Jungian conceptions of the unconscious mind. Throughout the 1920s and '30s, the movement flourished and spread from its center in Paris to other countries. Breton controlled the group rather autocratically, annointing new members and expelling those with whom he disagreed, in an effort to maintain focus on what he conceived as the essential principals or the fundamental insight which Surrealism manifested (a conception which changed, to some extent, during his life). In the early '30s the group published a periodical entitled Surrealism at the Service of the Revolution (Le Surrealisme au service de la revolution, 1930-33). Communism appealed to many intellectuals at this time and the movement flirted briefly with Moscow; but the Soviets demanded full allegiance and the subordination of art to the purposes of "the State." The surrealists sought absolute freedom and their aim was a profound psychological or spiritual revolution, not an attempt to change society on a merely political or economic level. (The full history of surrealist political involvement is quite complex and led to dissent and the formation of various factions within the movement.) With the advent of World War II, many of the Parisian participants sought safety in New York, leaving Paris to the Existentialists. By the war's end in 1945, Abstract Expressionism had superseded Surrealism as the western world's most important active art movement. "Ab Ex" grew out of both the tradition of Abstraction (exemplified by Kandinsky) and the "automatic" branch of Surrealism (exemplified by Joan Miro and André Masson) with Roberto Matta and Arshile Gorky as key pivotal figures. But Surrealism did not die in 1945. Though the attention of the fickle art world may have shifted away, Breton continued to expound his vision until his death in 1966, and many others have continued to produce works in the surrealist spirit to the present day. The ongoing impact of Surrealism cannot be underestimated and must be granted a distinct place in the history of literature, art and philosophy.
above copied from: http://alangullette.com/lit/surreal//

Capturing Ideas: The Surreal Photography of Erik Johansson



Swedish and Berlin-based mixed media photographer Erik Johansson has created astounding work that is perhaps only surpassed by his remarkable process. We featured an image of his earlier on. At first glance, his surreal images – essentially landscape photographs transformed into something more magical – rouse wonder in people, and upon closer inspection, they are dressed to impress, with every minor detail considered and perfected. It’s his process, however, that really had us at hello. While many Photoshop artists use stock images to create their art, Erik is going out of his way to make his photographs more realistic and entirely his own. He meticulously draws, paints, creates miniature sets and cardboard cutouts, and shoots different spots and locations himself, all the while paying great attention to every single detail, before blending all these aspects together in a single photograph. Erik tells the Phoblographer: “To me photography is a way to collect material to realize the ideas in my mind. I get inspired by things around me in my daily life and all kinds of things I see. Although one photo can consist hundreds of layers I always want it to look like it could have been captured. Every new project is a new challenge and my goal is to realize it as realistic as possible.” Erik’s dedication to the craft is something we don’t see every day, which makes his work all the more inspiring. And with his painstaking creations, he actualizes images in his mind and molds them into something real for others. As he points out, “I don’t capture moments, I capture ideas.” See Erik Johansson’s breathtaking work and his behind-the-scenes videos after the jump. To see more of Erik’s work, visit his website.
above copied from: http://www.thephoblographer.com/2014/08/27/capturing-ideas-surreal-photography-erik-johansson//

Surrealist Photographer Erik Johansson Bends Reality Without Photoshop



Even if you’ve never heard of Erik Johansson, chances are that you’ve already come across one of his surrealistic masterpieces online. The Swedish-born photo artist uses both physical objects and special retouching techniques to create fantastical worlds in which everything seems possible. Erik currently lives in Berlin where he’s steadily working on his amazingly creative photo projects, producing an astonishing amount of work and giving an incredible TED Talk before hitting his thirties. The Creators Project: Can you tell us about the creative process behind making these photos? Erik Johansson: For me, it's basically just problem solving when I’m trying to make a picture. It always starts with an idea and then I just have to sort of figure out how to translate that idea into an image. Every image consists of different parts and because I always want my work to look as realistic as possible, I shoot all of those parts individually with my camera and never use CGI. So in my work, I’m constantly trying to find out where and how I can capture all the various elements that make up a work. It takes just as much time to do something in real life as it does trying to "fake it" in Photoshop, so I just thought it would be more fun to do it for real. And because you use actual images, no one can ever tell you it doesn’t look realistic, which to me is very important. Finally, I really like the contrast of being in the countryside taking the photos and then coming to the city and putting it together. I like to combine both parts. Apart from the stunning visual effect, what other messages are you trying to convey with your photography? There's not some hidden meaning or something that you can figure out by looking at the images. It’s more about the visual aspects of it all, and the images reflect what I am thinking. So I guess it’s more up to the viewer to see the message in that sense. When I would read children's books as a kid, I rarely read the text. I just wanted to look at the pictures and create my own story. People should be able to do the same with my pictures. I merely want to give it a title and not talk too much about the message of the picture. "Let's Leave" "Face Fist" What inspires your work? Any specific sources, in particular? Inspiration can basically come from anywhere. It’s about seeing connections between things that normally don’t fit together. For example, I have this work where you see high-voltage cables that run into a guitar. That idea came simply by looking at it and thinking: Hey, those could be guitar strings. That was how the idea was born. It can be that simple sometimes. On your website there are a lot of instructional videos on how you made your projects. Can you tell us about offering these tips and encouraging people to possibly make similar work? I really enjoy seeing behind-the-scenes videos from other artists, as well. I think it’s very interesting to see how others work and how they create something. But if I had to give beginning artists a piece of advice, I’d say: Trying is the best way of learning. Just go out there and do stuff. With photography you just have to take pictures, you don’t need a fancy camera or know how to retouch something. You can learn a lot with very little. When I don't know something, I just Google it and find a solution for what I need. In the end, it's all about imagination and what you can come up with. I would really like to see more people doing this sort of thing. I think that would be very interesting. The scenes in your images are so specific that it's clear they come from one person's control and vision. Would you describe yourself as a control freak? I think you need to be a little bit of a control freak in order to do this kind of work. I always try to make it look perfect. And although I think it is impossible to actually achieve perfection, I hope I’m getting closer all the time. At some point you’re so tired of working with the pictures that you just have to leave it for a while and then later on you have to force yourself to go back to it. It’s good to have that kind of perfectionist goal. With regards to your photo, Iron Man, I once met someone who actually tried to iron her clothes while wearing them because she was in a hurry. Of course she burned herself: Do you think surrealism can encourage some regrettable ideas to people? [Laughs] Well, I don’t think that people should try the things that I do in my pictures. But maybe I should add a warning label or something. That could be important. "Fishy Island" "Vertical Turn"
above copied from: https://creators.vice.com/en_us/article/surrealist-photographer-erik-johansson-bends-reality-without-photoshop/

Photography and Surrealism



Surrealism was officially launched as a movement with the publication of poet André Breton’s first Manifesto of Surrealism in 1924. The Surrealists did not rely on reasoned analysis or sober calculation; on the contrary, they saw the forces of reason blocking the access routes to the imagination. Their efforts to tap the creative powers of the unconscious set Breton and his companions on a path that carried them through the territory of dreams, intoxication, chance, sexual ecstasy, and madness. The images obtained by such means, whether visual or literary, were prized precisely to the degree that they captured these moments of psychic intensity in provocative forms of unrestrained, convulsive beauty. Photography came to occupy a central role in Surrealist activity. In the works of Man Ray (2005.100.141) and Maurice Tabard (1987.1100.141), the use of such procedures as double exposure, combination printing, montage, and solarization dramatically evoked the union of dream and reality. Other photographers used techniques such as rotation (1987.1100.49) or distortion (1987.1100.321) to render their images uncanny. Hans Bellmer (1987.1100.15) obsessively photographed the mechanical dolls he fabricated himself, creating strangely sexualized images, while the painter René Magritte (1987.1100.157) used the camera to create photographic equivalents of his paintings. In her close-up photograph of a baby armadillo suspended in formaldehyde, Dora Maar performs a typical Surrealist inversion, making an ugly, or even repulsive subject compelling and bizarrely appealing (2005.100.443). But the Surrealist understanding of photography turned on more than the medium’s facility in fabricating uncanny images. Just as important was another discovery: even the most prosaic photograph, filtered through the prism of Surrealist sensibility, might easily be dislodged from its usual context and irreverently assigned a new role. Anthropological photographs, ordinary snapshots, movie stills, medical and police photographs—all of these appeared in Surrealist journals like La Révolution Surréaliste and Minotaure, radically divorced from their original purposes. This impulse to uncover latent Surrealist affinities in popular imagery accounts, in part, for the enthusiasm with which Surrealists embraced Eugène Atget’s photographs of Paris. Published in La Révolution Surréaliste in 1926 at the suggestion of his neighbor, Man Ray, Atget’s images of vanished Paris were understood not as the work of a competent professional or a self-conscious artist but as the spontaneous visions of an urban primitive—the Henri Rousseau of the camera. In Atget’s photographs of the deserted streets of old Paris and of shop windows haunted by elegant mannequins, the Surrealists recognized their own vision of the city as a “dream capital,” an urban labyrinth of memory and desire.
above copied from: http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/phsr/hd_phsr.htm/

Man Ray, The Gift



The American artist Man Ray (born Emanuel Radnitzky) arrived in Paris in 1921. Within a year, the artist had his first solo show at a Parisian gallery. Among the works he exhibited was one unlisted sculpture: the object, which he called The Gift, was an everyday flatiron with brass tacks glued in a column down its center. According to Man Ray in his autobiography Self-Portrait, the object was made quickly, in a bout of inspiration, the day of the gallery opening. What do we make of Man Ray's relatively simple, yet subversive act of presenting a modified household Samuel Kravitt, A Sister's Hands Ironing, c. 1931-36, photo, Hancock Shaker Village, Massachusetts (Library of Congress) Samuel Kravitt, A Sister's Hands Ironing, c. 1931-36, photo, Hancock Shaker Village, Massachusetts (Library of Congress) appliance as a work of art? The flatiron – intended to smooth wrinkles from fabric – has been rendered useless with the addition of a row of brass tacks. We are perhaps expected to react the way the store owner supposedly did when Man Ray purchased these items, by exclaiming, “But you'll ruin the shirt if you put tacks there!” Dada, or the nonsense of the everyday Before arriving in Paris, Man Ray was associated with the New York Dada group, which included the artist Marcel Duchamp. As a loosely-affiliated group of like-minded artists, they were particularly interested in using humor and antagonism to question the definition of a work of art. Re-defining art was prevalent in Duchamp's Readymades, such as his Bicycle Wheel, a sculpture made by conjoining a bicycle wheel and a stool, two utilitarian objects. The Surrealist object Marcel Duchamp, Bicycle Wheel, 1951 (third version, after lost original of 1913), metal wheel mounted on painted wood stool, 129.5 x 63.5 x 41.9 cm (The Museum of Modern Art), © 2014 Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York / ADAGP, Paris / Estate of Marcel Duchamp Marcel Duchamp, Bicycle Wheel, 1951 (third version, after lost original of 1913), metal wheel mounted on painted wood stool, 129.5 x 63.5 x 41.9 cm (The Museum of Modern Art) Although made in the spirit of Dada, Man Ray's The Gift prefigured by several years a key artistic practice that would develop within the Surrealist movement: the “Surrealist object,” a type of three-dimensional art work that included found objects, modified objects, and sculpted objects. The Surrealist object—one of many literary and visual practices in the movement—became prominent beginning in 1936, after its association with a series of extravagant international expositions organized in London and Paris. Surrealism had been first publicly announced in 1924, with the publication of André Breton's first "Manifesto of Surrealism." Stridently activist, Surrealists sought to release society from cultural constraints and the need to conform to social norms, which they felt curtailed people's desires to live as they wished. Function/Dysfunction Of the many types of Surrealist objects that were produced, two important features are present in Man Ray's The Gift. First, an everyday object has been changed so that its original function is denied. Indeed, the artist's relatively simple addition of tacks transforms a useful device into a destructive one. Second, Man Ray's alteration gives a common object a symbolic function. The flatiron, associated with social expectations of propriety and middle-class values, becomes a subversive attack on social expectations. Even if Man Ray's tack-lined iron is no longer used for pressing clothes, the object resonates with ruinous, violent possibilities. Denial and destruction While denial and destruction are qualities are not intrinsic to all Surrealist art, there are striking examples, like The Gift, that show Surrealists working with banal objects to question the viewer's expectations, and force us to re-evaluate the function of those objects in our lives. Wolfgang Paalen, Articulated Cloud, umbrella in foam, 1938 Wolfgang Paalen, Articulated Cloud, umbrella in foam, 1938 Wolfgang Paalen's work from 1938, Articulated Cloud, an umbrella crafted from spongy foam, denies the object's intended function by causing water to be absorbed rather than repelled. It also makes the umbrella rather useless for anyone seeking shelter from rain. Another object by Man Ray—a metronome with a photograph of a woman's open eye clipped to it—adds an ominous sense of relentless observation to an ordinary musician's timing instrument. Man Ray's title of the piece, Object to Be Destroyed, seems mysterious at first. But when we consider the psychological effects of such obsessive observation—and think about what kind of impulses such regulations might evoke - the artist's title becomes easier to understand. Man Ray, Indestructible Object (or Object to Be Destroyed), 1964 (replica of 1923 original), metronome with cutout photograph of eye on pendulum, 22.5 x 11 x 11.6 cm (The Museum of Modern Art) © 2014 Man Ray Trust / Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York / ADAGP, Paris Man Ray, Indestructible Object (or Object to Be Destroyed), 1964 (replica of 1923 original), metronome with cutout photograph of eye on pendulum, 22.5 x 11 x 11.6 cm (The Museum of Modern Art) No longer a simple time-keeping device, Object To Be Destroyed summons feelings of irritation over being watched, and powerlessness in the face of endless time. There is no means to stop the cycle, except to destroy the object itself. Don't touch the art! The violent implications of The Gift and other Surrealist objects by Man Ray came to fruition in 1957 when Object to Be Destroyed was lost during a Man Ray retrospective. Varying stories exist as to the fate of the sculpture. In his autobiography, Man Ray recounts that a group of students visited the exhibition and caused a scene, during which one of them walked off with the sculpture, and it was never seen again. Numerous historians, however, state that during the exhibition one of the students took the title literally and smashed it with a hammer. Whether stolen or smashed, Object to Be Destroyed no longer existed. This compelled Man Ray to remake the sculpture, but he pointedly changed the title to Indestructible Object. Essay by Josh Rose
above copied from: https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/art-1010/art-between-wars/surrealism1/a/man-ray-the-gift/

Camera-less Photography Techniques



The essence of photography lies in its seemingly magical ability to fix shadows on light-sensitive surfaces. Normally, this requires a camera, but not always. Several artists work without a camera, creating images on photographic paper by casting shadows and manipulating light, or by chemically treating the surface of the paper. Images made with a camera imply a documentary role. In contrast, camera-less photographs show what has never really existed. They are also always ‘an original’ because they are not made from a negative. Encountered as fragments, traces, signs, memories or dreams, they leave room for the imagination, transforming the world of objects into a world of visions. Processes & techniques Camera-less photographs can be made using a variety of techniques, the most common of which are the photogram, the luminogram and the chemigram. These techniques are sometimes used in combination. Many involve an element of chance.

 Chemigram

 Chemigrams are made by directly manipulating the surface of photographic paper, often with varnishes or oils and photographic chemicals. They are produced in full light and rely on the maker's skill in harnessing chance for creative effect. Documented experiments are often an important part of the process.

 Digital C-print

 A print made from digital images using digital printers. Inside such printers, chromogenic (or 'C'-type) photographic paper is exposed to red, green and blue lasers. The paper is then processed in the traditional, chemical-based manner. Images created by camera-less methods can be digitised and turned into C-prints. When processed in this way, camera-less images can be retouched, enlarged and reproduced as multiples.

 Dye destruction print

 A print made using direct positive colour paper. This paper was originally introduced in 1963 for printing colour transparencies or negatives. It is coated with at least three layers of emulsion, each of which is sensitised to one of the three primary colours. Each layer also contains a dye related to that colour. During development of the image, any unexposed dyes are bleached out (hence 'dye destruction'). The remaining dyes form a full-colour image.

 Gelatin-silver print

 A print made using paper that has been coated with gelatin containing silver salts. Where light strikes the silver salts, they become dark. The image is then developed out using chemical developer. The paper itself can have a matt or gloss surface, and the image can be toned. Introduced in 1871, the gelatin-silver print is still in general use today.

 Luminogram

 A variation of the photogram (see below). In a luminogram, light falling directly on the paper forms the image. Objects placed between the light and the paper (but not touching the paper) will filter or block the light, depending on whether they are transparent or opaque.

 Photogram

 Photograms are made by placing an object in contact with a photosensitive surface in the dark, and exposing both to light. Where the object blocks the light, either partially or fully, its shadow is recorded on the paper. The term 'photogram' seems to have appeared around 1925. The photogram artist is not able to predict the results in the viewfinder of a camera, and often works in the dark. The final image is only apparent after physical and chemical manipulation or development.

Reading list Luis Nadeau, Encyclopedia of Printing, Photographic and Photomechanical Processes New Brunswick, NJ (Atelier Luis Nadeau), 1989, and the related website, photoconservation.com Gordon Baldwin, Looking at Photographs: A Guide to Technical Terms Los Angeles and London (J. Paul Getty Museum in association with the British Museum Press), 1991 This text was originally written to accompany the exhibition Shadow Catchers: Camera-less Photography, on display at the V&A South Kensington between 13 October 2010 and 20 February 2011.

above copied from: [http://www.vam.ac.uk/content/articles/c/camera-less-photography-techniques/]

Tuesday, April 4, 2017

Arnulf Rainer
A la recherche inlassable de ce qui l'intéresse, comme il le formule dans son film "Loin et en vain", Arnulf Rainer fait figure de générateur d'impulsions toujours nouvelles.

Né en 1929 à Baden près de Vienne, il se décide souvent avec esprit de suite à donner une nouvelle orientation à sa vie pour se déterminer librement lui-même. Il quitte l'école vers l'âge de 15 ans, car il ne veut pas être contraint à peindre selon nature et décide de devenir artiste. En 1949, peu de temps après son admission, il quitte aussi bien l'Ecole supérieure des Arts Appliqués que l'Académie des Beaux-Arts de Vienne.

L'art de Arnulf Rainer se découvre par séries.

Dans ses premiers dessins figuratifs (1947-51), il se laisse influencer par les théories des surréalistes, pour s'en détacher ensuite en 1951, après une rencontre décevante avec André Breton à Paris.

En 1950, alors membre du groupe de canailles fondé en 1950 à Vienne, Rainer provoque le public dans la pose du bouffon. Des microstructures à l'apparence organique voient le jour, ses destructions de formes annonçant déjà son désir de progresser par manipulation-destruction vers quelque chose de nouveau, de meilleur, comme dans ses retouches plus tardives. Sa peinture informelle avait ainsi déjà sonné.

Le désir d'atteindre les plus hauts sommets de liberté dans la peinture s'exprime notamment dans sa peinture à l'aveugle, avec les yeux fermés, et par une idée maîtresse qu'il formule comme suit en 1952 :

 "La peinture est une forme visuelle de la conscience intellectuelle. Le résultat d'un point par rapport à l'environnement est le moment de sa naissance. Le nombre infini de points (la surface homogène) les estompe. Sur les traces de la réduction permanente, elle aspire à une situation limite (la distillation et la dissolution). Pour la destruction des idoles du millénaire, un moyen de libération inlassable par rapport à une tradition qui est la deuxième."

 Dans les années 50 et 60, Rainer commence à retoucher en monochromie ses propres œuvres, ainsi que celles mises à sa disposition par d'autres artistes (par exemple, par Mathieu, Vasarely et Vedova). Le langage imagé utilisé dans les "retouches", qui ont donné lieu par la suite aux "ajouts de peintures", présentent un thème central dans la peinture de Rainer et de son plus grand groupe de travaux. La technique consistant à griffonner, peindre ou dessiner sur un travail lui sert également à conférer une expression plus significative à ses photos noir et blanc avec des attitudes issues de la gestuelle corporelle. C'est le cas également pour les retouches de photos "Face Farces" (1970), qui représentent toutes les poses corporelles imaginables de Rainer.

 Bien que l'artiste désigne les "retouches" comme des "antipodes dialectiques" à ses travaux faisant intervenir le langage du corps gestuel-mimique, il englobe ici la querelle des deux disciplines artistiques en une synthèse visuelle. Ses travaux de langage corporel ont commencé par des grimaces dans les cabines photos. Il expérimente d'une part avec son corps comme fond de peinture et, d'autre part, comme matériau dans sa peinture à la main et aux doigts apparue en 1973.

 Dans une citation significative, Arnulf Rainer nous explique pourquoi la retouche est un plaisir intérieur : "La peinture, pour terminer la peinture". Cela signifie : parvenir, par corrections et modifications, à une nouvelle expression, en relation dialectique avec un autre niveau, à une vue nouvelle, plus profonde.

 Voici ce que disait Rainer à propos de sa méthode de "retouches" : "Avec critique et hostilité envers tout, je parviens à corriger et à retoucher. Ce n'est que maintenant que j'ose détruire, parce que quelque chose de meilleur en sort. Les représentations fixes mais floues me comblent, se différencient et se concrétisent seulement pendant le dessin et deviennent quelque chose de nouveau. Après une ou deux heures, je suis épuisé. Les améliorations ne sont plus que modifications ou souvenirs. Les idées ne s'élargissent pas de ce qui est déjà fait."

Après un retour à sa période surréaliste précoce, et sous l'influence d'hallucinogènes, comme la Psilocybine et le LSD, Rainer crée des dessins figuratifs en 1965.

Plusieurs films sur l'avant-gardisme autrichien, qui influencèrent Rainer de manière décisive, et leurs rapports avec la drogue voient le jour.

Entre ses retouches par dessin de divers sujets, comme les grottes et les roches, l'architecture souterraine et les poses de femmes (1974-77) et sa série de retouches photos "art sur l'art" d'artistes célèbres, il n'y avait qu'un pas.

Dans la série des "têtes de caractère" du génie méconnu de la sculpture baroque, F.X. Messerschmidt, Rainer choisit par exemple des reproductions photographiques du "satirique" ou du "clown à griffes", pour faire des retouches par dessin. Il retouche d'autres photos d'œuvres de Dorés, de la "Caricature" de Zanetti, de Léonard de Vinci et, au début des années 80, des œuvres de Goya, Holbein, Blake après la Divine Comédie de Dante.

Il s'agit non seulement de rehausser l'expression par les lignes de contour, comme pour les têtes de Messerschmidt, mais aussi d'apporter des ajouts de peintures, des coupures gestuelles-visuelles, des modifications, suite à quoi on ne reconnaît plus le motif d'origine que sur le côté ou flottant ça et là. Par la suite, il étend sa méthode à des représentations de tableaux graphiques de feuilles, de fleurs et d'animaux et aussi du cosmos.

A cette époque (1977), Rainer est confronté à la thématique de la mort. Les croix avaient déjà été un de ses thèmes de prédilection, et il le reprit rapidement. On retiendra également un dessin précoce de "Rainer à l'article de la mort" (1949). Il s'agissait alors de masques mortuaires de personnages célèbres dans le domaine de la politique, la littérature, la philosophie et la musique (comme Uhland, Robespierre, Schiller, von Weber, Fichte, Puccini, Liszt, Haydn, etc.). Il est évident que le thème des masques intéressait Rainer depuis longtemps, notamment par rapport aux grimaces. C'est l'expression figée de la vie qui s'en va, l'extinction et le regard douloureux de ce qui n'est plus que corporel que Rainer a choisi comme fond thématique de ses retouches par dessin, que Werner Hofmann caractérisait de "obsession", comme une "excursion sur la crête entre art et rituel".

Hofmann et le prêtre Otto Mauer, qui avait fondé la très influente galerie d'avant-garde à Vienne en 1955, la "Galerie près de St. Stephan", voient la conciliation de la contradiction dans les travaux de Rainer, entre couleurs agressives et réconciliation (voir "Face Farces"), dans une perspective chrétienne. Johannes Cladders décrit les travaux de Arnulf Rainer de la manière suivante : "Ses tableaux ne sont pas des peintures en dialogue esthétique ou langage personnel, pas plus que des illustrations de quelque chose, des allégories de quelque chose, des symboles de quelque chose. Ce sont des actions, la victoire de l'inutilité, de l'infériorité".

En 1981, Rainer reçoit une chaire de professeur à l'Académie des Beaux-Arts à Vienne. En 1995, il est mis à la retraite à sa demande. Il vit actuellement à Vienne, en Haute-Autriche, en Bavière et à Ténériffe.

Lilian Haberer 

Copied from http://www.newmedia-art.org/cgi-bin/show-art.asp?LG=FRA&ID=9000000000066991&na=RAINER&pna=ARNULF&DOC=bio

Thursday, March 16, 2017

The First Surrealist Film The Seashell and the Clergyman, Brought to You By Germaine Dulac & Antonin Artaud (1928) by Colin Marshall When the subject of early surrealist film arises, most of us think of Salvador Dalí and Buñuel’s Un Chien Andalou, and not without good cause: even 86 years after its release, its nightmare images of piano-dragging and eyeball-slicing still lurk in our collective cinematic consciousness. But we can’t call it the very first surrealist film since, 87 years ago, French critic and filmmaker Germaine Dulac, in collaboration with no less an avant-garde luminary than Antonin Artaud, put out La Coquille et le clergyman, better known internationally as The Seashell and the Clergyman, which you can watch free above. Un Chien Andalou met with a pleased reception, to Buñuel’s delight and Dalí’s disappointment. Dulac and Artaud’s project provoked a different reaction. “Advertised as ‘a dream on the screen,'” writes Senses of Cinema’s Maryann de Julio, “The Seashell and Clergyman’s premiere at the Studio des Ursulines on February 9, 1928 incited a small riot, and critical response to the film has ranged from the misinformed – some American prints spliced the reels in the wrong order – to the rapturous – acclaimed as the first example of a Surrealist film.” The film takes place in the consciousness of the titular clergyman, a lusty priest who thinks all manner of impure thoughts about a general’s wife. In another Senses of Cinema article on Artaud’s film theory, Lee Jamieson writes that, in putting this troubled consciousness on film, it “penetrates the skin of material reality and plunges the viewer into an unstable landscape where the image cannot be trusted,” resulting in “a complex, multi-layered film, so semiotically unstable that images dissolve into one another both visually and ‘semantically,’ truly investing in film’s ability to act upon the subconscious.” It capitalizes, in other words, upon the now well-known principle that what is seen cannot be unseen. But it also pushed cinema ahead in a way that Buñuel and Dali could run with the following year. De Julio’s article quotes Artaud’s own description of the challenge he saw the form as facing, and the one which The Seashell and the Clergyman attempts, in its way, to address: it could either become “pure or absolute cinema” or “this sort of hybrid visual art that persists in translating into images, more or less apt, psychological situations that would be perfectly at home on stage or in the pages of a book, but not on the screen.” He saw neither of these as “likely the true one,” and many filmmakers even today (David Lynch stands as a guiding light among those now living) continue the search for how best to tell stories on film in a manner suited to the advantages of film. Even overshadowed by Un Chien Andalou, The Seashell and the Clergyman remains a popular silent film to re-score today, and you can watch the movie with a few different soundtracks online: from dark ambient artist Roto Visage, from musique concrète composer Delia Derbyshire, from large-scale experimental band Sons of Noel and Adrian, and many more besides. Copied from http://www.openculture.com/2015/11/witness-the-first-surrealist-film-the-seashell-and-the-clergyman.html

Friday, February 24, 2017

L’ÉQUIVOQUE DE LA CULTURE, texte de Georges Bataille Extrait de la revue « Comprendre » n° 16, Société Européenne de culture, Venise 1956 Je m’excuse de situer la question dès l’abord en dehors de ses perspectives habituelles. La forme première de la culture n’est pas à mes yeux celle que nous envisageons le plus souvent. Nous envisageons d’habitude la culture individuelle, mais les peuples primitifs - ou archaïques - ont leur culture. En réponse à la question des devoirs de l’« homme de culture », il est peut-être déplacé de remonter si loin ; autant qu’il semble, hors du domaine où la question se pose pour nous. Il me semble néanmoins que c’est dans le cadre d’une telle culture, à laquelle je donne ici le nom d’archaïque, que les relations - et l’opposition - de la culture et du pouvoir sont données le plus clairement. Le pouvoir qui s’oppose à l’autonomie de la culture peut le faire en premier lieu, s’il donne le pas à des préoccupations militaires ; en second lieu, s’il préfère au développement de la culture celui des forces productives. L’exemple de l’Egypte me permet de m’exprimer. Sa culture a l’avantage de se définir, nécessairement, en contraste avec la culture individuelle des Grecs. Mais surtout les représentations que j’en tirerai me permettront d’être aisément compris. Je n’essayerai pas d’analyser des composantes qui ressortent suffisamment. Je partirai de l’image familière des Pyramides. Personne n’en doute, les Pyramides comptent au nombre des merveilles de la culture. Je n’entre pas dans le détail de leur interprétation religieuse. Je me borne à rappeler qu’elles ont eu et qu’elles ont gardé le sens d’un triomphe de la pensée sur la mort. Cette manière de voir est sans doute une simplification, mais il n’en est pas de plus légitime. Nous pourrions en même temps, dans une réflexion superficielle, lier les Pyramides au poids de la pierre et aux souffrances de milliers d’esclaves, mais c’est justement d’avoir triomphé de la pesanteur et de la souffrance que ces édifices sont merveilleux. En eux, l’humanité est belle en son entier. La douleur est laide, elle est impuissante et ne répond que par le non-sens à la question que l’angoisse pose en nous. Dans la sérénité des Pyramides, l’humanité est belle d’avoir dépassé le malheur de ceux qui les ont élevées ; elle est belle de cette apparence inchangée, maintenue comme un effet d’une souffrance laide et innombrable, qui s’est tue. L’humanité ne cesse pas individuellement de mourir, de souffrir et de trembler, mais au delà de la mort, de la souffrance et du tremblement, elle peut se contempler dans le rêve que fut la victoire de la pensée sur la misère de notre condition. Notre culture, il est vrai, ne s’en tient pas toujours à ce mouvement d’indifférence du vainqueur. Ce mouvement nous laisse après tout désarmés, mais si la culture, effectivement, nous ouvre un peu plus loin un horizon hideux, son premier pas n’en est pas moins lié à la possibilité d’un triomphe aussi parfait. Dût-elle à cette fin nous mentir, elle dût en premier lieu figurer pour nous ce monde à notre mesure. Ce triomphe, essentiellement, fut celui du travail que la culture a commandé, mais qui diffère de la culture en ce que, dans tout son mouvement, il est l’effet d’un calcul des causes rapportées à leur effet pratique. Je ne crois pas que nous puissions jamais parler de culture sans l’opposer dans son essence au travail, que la culture seule peut détourner d’une application immédiate à la satisfaction des besoins. L’exemple des Pyramides est remarquable en ce qu’il montre un immense travail au service d’une fin inutile, propre à la culture, d’une fin propre à la culture, non à la raison d’être fondamentale du travail, que furent les proies à dépecer, les huttes à élever pour ne pas mourir. Le travail d’édification des Pyramides est en son essence la négation du travail ; elles furent édifiées comme si le travail était négligeable et pouvait être en quelque sorte enseveli. Du point de vue pratique, qui est celui du travail, les Pyramides sont aussi vaines que serait aujourd’hui la construction d’un gratte-ciel suivie de son incendie voulu sans raison. Ce défi à la mort n’évita la mort à personne, il dût au contraire entraîner de nombreuses morts accidentelles. Mais sa folle négation eut un sens : celui de la richesse, du travail enfouis, qui, du fait d’échapper à leur emploi utile, prenaient valeur de fin souveraine. Cette richesse, ce travail enfouis consacraient en effet souverainement le pharaon mort, faisant de lui ce qu’il ne fut pas de son vivant, l’image de l’éternité divine. C’est d’être soustraites à leur emploi servile que les choses abandonnent leur sens et ne sont plus des choses, mais des reflets divins, des apparences souveraines, des choses sacrées. C’est pour situer devant eux et contempler ces apparences que les hommes les voulurent incarner en la personne de l’un d’entre eux, qui dès lors, pouvait devenir la fin de tous les autres, marquant le lieu où la servitude se dissolvait : dans l’ombre des Pyramides, la réalité se détachait même de la vie, sans fin la mort la transfigurait. Les Pyramides manifestent une va leur de culture indépendante de la composition de force à partir de laquelle exista la puissance de l’Egypte : la puissance, c’est-à-dire un Etat réalisé dans une armée. Mais cette indépendance de principe ne pouvait être assurée solidement. Bien que la dignité de pharaon n’ait tenu sa valeur que dune pensée extérieure au pouvoir militaire, nous savons que la désignation du souverain put dépendre de luttes armées. Ce sont des guerres qui placèrent dans les mains d’un seul le patrimoine religieux de plusieurs pays : et la richesse propre à telle souveraineté locale put être acquise militairement. La richesse spirituelle, en quelque sorte mystique, différait essentiellement des mouvements des chars et des corps de troupe. De même, encore qu’avec plus de netteté, la dignité d’un pape ne cessa jamais d’être distincte du commandement des mercenaires pontificaux. Il s’agit d’un côté d’une création de la culture, de l’autre, d’une force matérielle. Il n’existe guère de force matérielle qui ne soit liée à quelque prestige. Mais réciproquement, sur le plan où nous sommes à l’instant placés, il n’est guère de richesse spirituelle qui puisse être souveraine autrement que dans la mesure où elle dispose d’une force armée. Théoriquement, je puis imaginer un pouvoir spirituel pur, tel que le prestige lié à une dignité suffise à déplacer cette force. Mais dans la pratique, la force obéit mieux à ceux qui possèdent les qualités proprement militaires (physiques ou techniques). C’est pourquoi il n’est pas de pouvoir spirituel qui ne puisse être vicié par l’intervention des valeurs militaires, c’est-à-dire de la force matérielle. Au sommet, toutefois, c’est d’un effet de la culture qu’il s’agit, lié au pouvoir qu’un être a de magnifier les valeurs souveraines, et de les placer au dessus du calcul de l’intérêt. D’une manière fondamentale, est souverain, sur le plan spirituel, celui qui donne sans calculer, sans compter, qui veut le rayonnement de la splendeur (les valeurs spirituelles plus récentes, qui font la part de la morale, ne jouent qu’en second lieu ; au temps des pharaons, elles sont encore insignifiantes). L’opposition des valeurs souveraines aux valeurs utiles a la plus grande simplicité. Elle est toujours facile à faire et cet aperçu l’accusera. Elle est la base de l’opposition des biens de culture aux valeurs pratiques. Sur ce point, la confusion est de règle. Souvent les biens de culture sont appréciés à partir de leur valeur pratique : il me semble qu’un avilissement de la vie humaine en découle, et c’est la raison pour laquelle j’écris ces pages. L’origine de la confusion est d’ailleurs claire : elle tient au glissement dont je parle, qui, dans la mesure où elles se lient au pouvoir politique, laisse les valeurs spirituelles à la merci de la force armée. Ce glissement est d’autant plus lourd qu’il y a une affinité possible entre deux réalités essentiellement opposées, militaire et sacrée. Cette affinité est superficielle, mais elle n’en a pas moins de conséquence. Du fait que la guerre met la mort en jeu, et qu’en elle, du moins dans les conditions de la civilisation archaïque, la violence est souvent plus forte que le calcul de l’intérêt, il semble qu’elle s’accorde avec des sentiments très populaires et très profonds. Cet accord est menteur et profondément malheureux, il est à l’origine en premier lieu de l’avilissement que je veux dénoncer. Sans doute, peu d’esprits sont aujourd’hui prêts à cette confusion. Mais dans le sens contraire une erreur plus grave en découle. La morale qui s’oppose au jeu des valeurs militaires fait à son tour intervenir le calcul : elle condamne ces valeurs au nom de l’intérêt pratique et de la raison, qui est avant tout la raison pratique. Je ne conteste pas la condamnation de la morale, mais je vois que les valeurs souveraines étant la plupart du temps confondues avec les valeurs militaires, étant compromises avec elles, une condamnation générale confuse en est résultée. Pas assez logique, pas assez rigoureuse sans doute pour qu’une beauté aussi étrange, aussi loin de l’ordre réel que les Pyramides, en puisse être touchée. Mais ce qui, de nos jours, se détacha dans sa pureté se lia jadis à des circonstances politiques complexes, mettant en jeu des intérêts, des forces et des calculs. Je dois faire ressortir ici le sens de cette décantation, opérée par le temps. Mais immédiatement, le développement de la culture reposa sur la conscience d’une contradiction : ce qui peut nous apparaître aujourd’hui sacré sur le plan spirituel dût aussi revêtir un aspect sordide. Le premier mouvement de la culture fut la création des valeurs, mais dans un mouvement secondaire la culture devait critiquer ce qu’elle avait elle-même créé. En principe, il était nécessaire de contester l’usage intéressé de ce qui, dans son essence, était la négation de l’intérêt (du calcul). Cela ne put se faire, en premier lieu, que sous une forme limitée : la tricherie au profit de privilégiés fut dénoncée au nom de l’intérêt individuel lésé. Si bien que la culture se développa sur le plan individuel dans le sens d’une opposition des valeurs utiles aux valeurs sacrées. La culture repose sur la négation de l’utile, du moins de sa domination, sur l’affirmation des valeurs et des biens qui font de nous des hommes et non des animaux. Mais elle put en second lieu, et même elle dût nier ces valeurs et ces biens parce qu’ils deviennent, pour un petit nombre, le principe de leur égoïsme et de leurs calculs. La culture devint le pavé de l’ours de la culture : parce qu’elle devait contester l’utilisation des valeurs sacrées, des biens de culture, elle servit le primat des valeurs utiles. Cet aspect de la culture et ses extraordinaires conséquences doivent être soulignés. La critique de la comédie sur laquelle reposaient les valeurs archaïques était inévitable. Pour l’ensemble des hommes, il était impossible d’être longtemps satisfaits des biens que leur apportait le premier mouvement de la culture, tel que le manifeste les Pyramides. Ces biens étaient des biens, dans la pensée, dans la réflexion, comme l’est un spectacle insaisissable, mais ils formaient le patrimoine réel du pharaon. Pour les autres, il s’agissait d’une image et d’une fable. Le pharaon était le seul bénéficiaire réel : il entrait seul dans l’éternité. A la longue, les autres furent déçus par un triomphe qui les concernait dans la mesure où ils jouissaient humblement d’une gloire et d’un salut qui n’étaient pas les leurs. Dans les limites de l’histoire égyptienne, une évolution se produisit dans le sens d’un individualisme croissant. Il semble même qu’une période de troubles en résulta, une sorte de révolution où l’ordre social chavira. Mais seul le développement de la civilisation hellénique fit passer de la collectivité à l’individu les créations de la, culture. Les biens de culture ne peuvent en réalité être l’objet d’aucune appropriation particulière. Mais non seulement une telle appropriation en annule le sens. (Ainsi, du fait que la Pyramide assurait la survie du pharaon elle lui était utile, tandis qu’elle était utile, pour les autres un bien de culture). L’appropriation devient le point de départ d’une confusion entre la valeur et la négation de l’appropriation. La morale est dans son mouvement essentiel une lutte contre l’appropriation violente, ou sournoise, dont les biens de toute nature sont l’objet. Il est remarquable que ces biens se trouvent valorisés par voie de conséquence sur le plan de la morale. Ils ne sont plus alors désirés immédiatement, mais ils prennent une valeur morale en tant que la morale, qui exige leur juste répartition, fait de leur utilité l’exigence du bien (dans la négation de l’appropriation, c’est l’utilité que la Pyramide eut pour le pharaon qui ressort). Dans la culture individuelle des Grecs, ces préoccupations, que l’Egypte ancienne ne mit jamais au premier plan, prirent le dessus. Dans le mesure où il se charge de l’intérêt des individus généralement, l’individu tend à s’opposer aux valeurs souveraines du passé, parce que, dans la lutte d’un petit nombre pour le pouvoir, elles sont devenues pour lui des objets d’appropriation particulière, et parce qu’elles servent au développement d’un pouvoir central contre les individus. Ce glissement discret de la culture au profit de l’utilité matérielle se fit en même temps que s’ordonna l’ensemble de réflexions qui aboutit à la science, qui d’abord opposa aux valeurs souveraines et sacrées du passé le prestige de la raison. Le mouvement essentiel de la culture grecque posa le prestige de la raison de telle manière qu’il parut extérieur à l’utilité. La philosophie, la logique et la science se développèrent parallèlement au travail et à la technique, qui sont essentiellement des activités raisonnables. Mais dès l’abord, au même titre que la morale, elles se voulurent désintéressées. Elles étaient des biens de culture et, comme telles, elles devaient s’affirmer souveraines. Leur vérité ne devait en aucune mesure être servile. Elle devait avoir une valeur en soi, non pour les services matériels qu’elle pouvait rendre. Personne évidemment ne discute un caractère essentiel de la culture. L’« homme de culture » se distingue de celui qui met son intelligence au travail en vue d’un résultat pratique. Là-dessus le doute ne pourrait s’introduire sans donner le sentiment d’un danger fondamental. La culture est souveraine ou n’est pas. Il y va de la dignité humaine. L’esclavage fait de l’homme un animal. La culture servile a le même sens, elle retire à l’homme ce qui l’élève et le distingue de l’animal. Encore ne nous ramène t-elle pas à l’animal sauvage, mais à l’animal domestique, au niveau de la ferme et de la basse-cour. Mon affirmation appelle, il est vrai, une contrepartie. Le travail et la technique ne fondent pas moins la particularité humaine que la culture. C’est même apparemment par le travail que l’homme se dégagea de l’animalité. La culture, en un sens l’opposé du travail utile, est le fait d’un être qui travaillait. Nous devons même dire des biens culturels qu’ils sont dans leur essence un antidote du travail. Le travail fait du travailleur un moyen, mais une préoccupation poursuivit l’homme dès l’origine, qui jamais ne cessa de la dominer : l’homme avant tout voulut se donner à lui-même comme une fin. Sans doute dut-il faire en ce sens un effort d’autant plus grand que le travail tendait à le réduire à l’état d’instrument. Ce n’est d’ailleurs pas l’aspect le plus généralement reconnu de la religion qui répondit à cette préoccupation : la religion fut aussi royale, l’institution de la souveraineté personnelle fut l’une de ses formes majeures et c’est en elle que l’homme s’est sans cesse et sous diverses formes affirmé comme une fin, comme une fin d’ordre religieux. Mais j’ai représenté l’échec, le glissement, qui fit assez vite de la souveraineté une vérité bâtarde, une équivoque. Dans la mesure où il fut un chef d’armée pris dans les marchandages et dans les rapines de la politique militaire, le souverain, généralement, se réduisit lui-même à un moyen d’appropriation des richesses! Mais la morale, la philosophie et la science, qui tentèrent d’opposer aux valeurs sacrées du passé des biens culturels fondés, comme ces valeurs, sur un désintéressement souverain furent à leur tour engagées dans un glissement. Ces biens ne pouvaient se lier à l’indifférence devant la situation laissée par l’équivoque d’un monde soumis à la pire domination, celle de la force armée ; soumis encore à la domination de la misère contre laquelle la science est tenue de lutter par le moyen de la technique. (Ne parlons pas des contributions décisives que la science apporte à l’activité militaire !) De toute façon, les biens que nous tenons de la culture individuelle sont décevants. Nous attendons de la culture qu’elle nous détermine comme des fins, mais la philosophie, la science ou la morale sont équivoques. Nous sommes sûrs de l’espoir qui les suscita, non des valeurs qu’elles ont créées. Ce que nous appelons la culture est le contraire de ce que nous voulons saisir dans la mesure où nos connaissances techniques en découlent. La culture est donc limitée en nous à l’espoir vague et toutefois merveilleux que nous maintenons, dans l’immense confusion des esprits, même à la faveur de cette confusion. Il y a une équivoque de la culture. La culture n’est pas en fait toujours maintenue dans les limites de l’affirmation de l’homme comme fin. C’est si vrai qu’il existe des politiques culturelles, où la culture elle-même est un moyen, dont un pouvoir d’Etat est la fin. Il y a deux aspects de cette équivoque. L’aspect nationaliste est le moins significatif, mais il en est un autre où la culture n’est pas seulement la richesse d’un Etat, seul considéré comme une fin, mais la créatrice des richesses de la civilisation, qui peut être cette fois la civilisation universelle. S’il s’agit des richesses matérielles, il est à la rigueur possible, sinon facile, de résoudre l’équivoque, mais la confusion est plus lourde s’il s’agit des richesses morales. En effet, l’équivoque a sa source dans la morale, où la fin n’est jamais séparée des moyens que formellement. J’arrive à l’essentiel de mon étude : une culture est possible s’identifiant à l’affirmation de l’homme comme une fin, mais l’affirmation ne peut être le fait de la morale. La morale envisage les moyens de rendre l’humanité viable. La culture seule, au delà de la morale, a le loisir d’envisager la fin. Elle peut même dès l’abord, indépendamment des valeurs qu’elle a créées, se donner pour la fin de l’homme, mais c’est aller trop vite. Si elle définit la fin, si elle l’envisage, elle devient en effet cette fin, mais alors seulement. La fin de l’homme est bien une forme de culture : celle dont l’objet est la fin de l’homme. Il est vrai que les premières tentatives, dont le pharaon est l’exemple, ne pouvaient aboutir, parce que le pharaon faisait appel à la sensibilité inintelligente. Il en résultait non seulement une insuffisance, mais le glissement dont j’ai parlé d’abord. L’existence d’un pharaon était bien le produit d’une culture, et elle voulait être une image de la fin de l’homme. Mais seul 1’« homme de culture », qui n’est pas le sujet du pharaon, mais dont, entre autres, l’existence du pharaon est l’objet possible, peut accéder effectivement à cette fin. Le pharaon, bien entendu, n’est pas le thème obligatoire de cette forme de culture, il n’est que l’exemple d’une foule, par l’intermédiaire d’un individu souverain, s’efforçant grossièrement vers la fin humaine. C’est pourtant dans la réflexion sur un tel exemple que 1’« homme de culture », en même temps qu’il évite la pureté de l’abstraction, évite celle de la solitude et fait l’expérience d’un lien qui l’associe, non seulement à l’homme qui peupla communément l’Egypte ancienne, mais à tout homme possible. Nous accédons de cette manière à un humanisme plus entier, se donnant pour objet complémentaire ce qui d’abord rendit l’humanisme, la culture individuelle, impossible, et contre quoi l’humanisme envisagé dans son essor, à partir de la Grèce, dût nécessairement se dresser. L’humanisme, nécessairement, dut être révolutionnaire, mais son accomplissement ne se produit qu’au moment où il aperçoit la valeur de ce qui le révolta, qui le révolte encore, où il aperçoit en même temps le sens de sa révolte. La sorte de culture dont je veux parler n’est donc pas une sorte de culture entre autres, mais la culture faisant le tour de la culture, revenant sur son commencement et, dans ce retour, sortant de l’équivoque, cessant absolument d’être un moyen, devenant une fin, étant réflexion sur la fin, réflexion de la fin, réflexion infinie. Mais elle peut être dans tous les sens réflexion qui s’accomplit. Il est important de faire observer qu’étant en son essence réflexion de la fin, réflexion sur la fin, elle ne peut l’être entièrement qu’en étant dans le même mouvement réflexion sur les moyens. Je me bornerai dans les limites de cet aperçu à donner en conclusion une représentation typique de l’effort auquel elle est condamnée dans le sens de la réflexion sur les moyens. Si la fin de l’homme implique la consécration d’une partie des richesses produites à autre chose qu’au développement de la production (je rappelle que la construction des Pyramides est l’exemple dont je suis parti), nous devons cependant reconnaître, la place considérable (je dirais essentielle si l’essentiel n’était pas donné dans la fin, non dans un moyen) à laquelle a droit le développement de la production. A cet égard, la perspective du temps présent est la plus remarquable. Le système de production dans lequel nous vivons a demandé l’accumulation des richesses : la production moderne exige en premier lieu la consécration des ressources à la production des moyens de production, c’est-à-dire à l’équipement industriel. La période d’accumulation est toujours une période critique. Dans une période d’accumulation, il ne peut y avoir d’essor heureux de la culture désintéressée. La culture au contraire entre dans l’équivoque : elle ne peut compter que dans le mesure où elle est utile -ou du moins semble utile. Encore dans la société où l’avarice bourgeoise à la base assuma l’accumulation, la crise a-t-elle été larvée. Nous savons cependant quelle fut la misère des classes pauvres en Angleterre à l’époque de son plus grand effort industriel. La crise est forcément plus grave dans les sociétés où le mode d’existence féodal s’est perpétué, rendant en premier lieu l’accumulation bourgeoise impossible. La classe ouvrière et les intellectuels de ces pays durent y prendre l’initiative de l’industrialisation. Cela ne pouvait se faire sans accentuer l’équivoque de la culture dans le sens d’un utilitarisme que la bourgeoisie n’ignore pas. Dans la société bourgeoise, qui de nos jours a dépassé la période critique de l’accumulation, cette orientation du communisme fut souvent mal comprise. Je ne parle pas de ceux qui se réjouirent de toutes les difficultés de régimes à leurs yeux menaçants. Mais la mise de la culture au service de la production pouvait être déplorée à bon droit. J’ai parlé de cet aspect dramatique de la période récente, afin d’introduire un point de vue qui me semble fondamental. Loin d’accroître réellement l’équivoque de la culture, les crises russes et chinoises tendent à la résoudre. Ces crises sont des exemples frappants des conditions dans lesquelles la fin de l’homme est accessible. Nous ne devons ni prendre les moyens pour la fin, ni méconnaître la nécessité d’en passer par les moyens. Il est risible de jeter la pierre à ceux que les moyens -ont obsédé, parce qu’ils devaient les vouloir à tout prix. Mais nous devons faire une différence entre ceux qui ont dépassé la période critique de l’accumulation et ceux qui sont à son début. En fait le jdanovisme, qui pourrait aujourd’hui être dépassé par les Russes, peut l’être plus difficilement par les Chinois. Mais autant nous devons nous ouvrir à la considération des nécessités qui peuvent altérer provisoirement la pensée humaine, autant nous devons reconnaître qu’il est temps, pour nous (à tenir compte de notre développement industriel) d’envisager avec quelque âpreté ce qui nous incombe. Nous pouvons, nous, sortir de l’équivoque. La prospérité où nous vivons demande la culture accomplie, qui n’est en aucune mesure un moyen, qui est une fin et qui, se voulant telle, se consacre à la réflexion sur la fin. J’aimerais, pour finir, donner une image vivante de cette culture accomplie, liée à l’histoire de tous les mouvements qui cherchèrent dans ce monde à consacrer les ressources humaines à une fin dépassant l’utilité. L’histoire des religions et l’histoire de l’art (de la littérature autant que des beaux-arts) en serait la substance, avant la philosophie. C’est qu’elle serait le prolongement de cette manière d’être homme que seuls la religion et les arts ont su traduire. Mais sur le plan philosophique, elle serait d’abord antiphilosophie. Non qu’une philosophie ne puisse s’élever au souci de la fin opposé à celui des moyens, mais la philosophie, généralement, donne le pas au jeu de l’intelligence et, sans une critique de l’intelligence ustensile, la philosophie est elle-même ustensile. Cette critique, me semble-t-il, n’a jamais été poussée assez loin : la philosophie n’a jamais rejoint dans la haine des exigences du discours logique la simplicité, la puissance de la poésie. L’art et l’exercice de la pensée ne peuvent que difficilement se rejoindre dans un silence qui soit d’abord un tremblement. Cette difficulté ne saurait nous faire désespérer de voir la société future laisser une modeste place à cette culture accomplie : elle ne peut elle-même, sans doute obscurément, que souhaiter « d’admettre dans son sein la présence de quelques personnes » qui lui soient « complètement inutiles ». Elles ne sauraient d’ailleurs lui sembler telles. Délivrer, un instant du moins, l’humanité de la poursuite du profit n’a pas seulement pour finir une utilité négative. Il n’est pas seulement utile en premier lieu de délivrer quelques personnes de l’utilité. Si aucun mouvement ne retirait la va-leur suprême à l’action, les hommes seraient condamnés à retrouver leur fin aveuglément dans la convulsion, cette fois sans doute définitive, de la guerre. Il est de l’intérêt de tous de montrer la valeur de fin souveraine que la guerre put avoir jusqu’à nos jours. Nous ne devons pas craindre de faire apercevoir dans la guerre une des formes où l’activité humaine dépassa la re-cherche des moyens pour accéder à sa fin. La culture dont je parle, étant réflexion sur la fin, ferait la part du jaillissement désintéressé qu’est la guerre. Son attitude à l’égard de la guerre serait la même qu’à l’égard de tout le délire souverain du passé. Née d’une révolte contre lui, elle en serait pourtant la justification. Mais de telle sorte que la guerre à tout jamais prît le sens du silence et du tremblement. Dans ces perspectives, il me semble que la culture et la « politique de la culture » se confondent. Ceci revient à dire que l’extrême conscience pourrait en même temps qu’elle en assure l’accomplissement définir le salut de l’humanité. Mais l’extrême conscience, ou l’extrême culture, me semblent possibles à la condition seulement de se détacher de l’action, qui ramène à l’utilité - ou aux agissements belliqueux, que dissimule parfois, et auxquels aboutit, la recherche de l’utilité. Dénoncer l’équivoque de la culture est à mon sens la seule « politique de la culture » qui, sans contradiction, situe efficacement la culture sur le plan de la politique, sur un plan tout à fait opposé au sien. POST-SCRIPTUM Je n’ ai pas cru devoir donner indépendamment de ses fondements le sens de ma position ; la culture ne peut envisager la question du pouvoir (en conséquence celle de la liberté, c’est-à-dire de la résistance au pouvoir), tant qu’à la base elle ne s’en est pas détachée. En particulier dans les circonstances présentes, il me semble que la politique de la culture doit se borner à comprendre de chaque côté les positions adverses. C’est en effet une banalité de dire aujourd’hui que les adversaires, ou se comprendront, ou s’anéantiront dans le même mouvement. Ils ne peuvent renoncer sans feinte à l’anéantissement de l’autre partie qu’en allant jusqu’au bout de la compréhension, celle-ci devant se fonder sur une reconnaissance des fins humaines au delà des moyens de la civilisation industrielle. Cela ne signifie pas la passivité mais la patience devant les forces politiques que les nécessités internes de leur mouvement opposent à la liberté de cette compréhension. Vous me demandez ce que je pense des possibilités des « hommes de culture » en France. De mon point de vue, je dois simplement dire que je les aperçois, sur le plan de la recherche des fins, divisés, comme ils le sont ailleurs. Sans doute la recherche des moyens - qui fondent la richesse matérielle - divise davantage. C’est la répartition des moyens qui décide de l’adversité majeure entre les peuples. Reste à dire seulement que le fait d’être un « homme de culture » signifie une conscience quelconque des fins, des fins qui rapprochent, au delà des moyens, qui divisent. A cet égard la culture en France a deux aspects. L’aspect traditionnel est le même qu’ailleurs. Mais le seul dont je parlerai, l’aspect moderne et singulier qui s’est dégagé, d’une manière voyante, et sans doute ne cesse pas de se dégager, surtout dans les parages du surréalisme. Cet aspect est la subversion. Je crois que, pour sa partie vivante, le développement actuel de la culture est en France dominé par l’esprit de subversion. Sans doute les esprits subversifs, dans l’intolérance d’un état de choses établi purent se trouver d’accord avec la subversion politique, et par là s’éloigner de la recherche des fins. Que le surréalisme, en premier, ait posé comme un principe la nécessité de supprimer d’abord, par la révolution, la division des hommes en classes ne signifie pas néanmoins l’indifférence au problème des fins. Les fins de l’homme, pour le surréalisme, sont données dans la poésie. Il est même possible de dire que cet intérêt fondamental est à l’origine des malentendus et des difficultés essentielles qui opposèrent les surréalistes aux marxistes (le stalinisme n’en est pas la seule explication). Il est vrai que l’exemple du surréalisme montre plutôt la possibilité de multiples désaccords à partir de la sub-version. Je crois ce risque superficiel et je dirai plutôt que la subversion seule est de nature à ouvrir à l’extrémité la solution de ces désaccords. La subversion seule donne à la culture le sens d’un accord de l’homme avec lui-même. L’article que vous avez accepté de publier me semble à cet égard subversif, sinon sensiblement, essentiellement : la fin de l’homme n’étant jamais donnée que par une subversion, par un renversement des valeurs. Il n’est pas mutile de souligner ici ce paradoxe, qu’en dépit d’un caractère conciliant, j’ai moi-même été tenu, en France, pour un esprit subversif, un des plus subversifs de ce temps, m’a-t-on dit quelquefois ! J’insiste enfin sur le fait que, du point de vue de la subversion, le surréalisme n’est pas en France un symptôme isolé ; les écrivains les plus significatifs, qu’ils aient ou non « passé par le surréalisme », ont d’abord été et sans doute sont encore des esprits subversifs. J’ai implicitement allégué Breton. Je nommerai Blanchot, Malraux, Char, Michaux, Leiris, Queneau, Genêt... (je ne citerai pas d’autres noms : pour ne rien embrouiller davantage). Je n’en veux pas tirer de conclusions rapides, mais ce fait, négligé ou méconnu, me semble seul justifier l’intérêt que suscite le développement de la culture en France. Sur le plan de la culture, la France est aujourd’hui le pays de la subversion. Or la compréhension dont je parle, si elle mûrit, suppose un renversement. Je me passe, si je peux, de laisser voir dans mes écrits cet aspect. Mais je crois que sans un mouvement violent, traduit dans la cohérence calme du langage, la culture ne peut être la fin qu’exige la rigueur de l’être, mais un bavardage impuissant, qui jouit de son impuissance. Je sens trop bien ce qu’un tel aperçu a de paradoxal, et d’insatisfaisant. Mais de deux choses l’une, si l’on y tient, il est possible au moins de me suivre en pressentant la nécessité de la question. Si l’on n’y tient pas ? Je n’ai jamais trouvé la possibilité de mettre sur la voie ceux qui veulent éviter le problème des fins. La culture, à mon sens, mène souvent à la méconnaissance de ce qu’elle est mais, plus contraire encore à la culture, le pire n’est-il pas l’impatience ? Copied from: http://www.fabriquedesens.net/L-EQUIVOQUE-DE-LA-CULTURE-texte-de

Documents: doctrines, archéologie, beaux-arts, ethnographie was a Surrealist art magazine edited by Georges Bataille. Published in Paris between April 1929 and January 1931, it ran for 15 issues, each of which contained a wide range of original writing and photographs. The journal focused upon a host of cultural traditions, spanning the disciplines of poetry, sociology, photography, sculpture, music, archaeology, and painting. It was overseen by the writer-philosopher Georges Bataille, who became more and more its single guiding figure as the issues progressed. Primarily through the pages of this journal, Bataille forcefully challenged the tenets of Surrealism espoused by André Breton in favor of an alternate model, in which humanity could embrace the formless, the sordid, the discarded and disregarded. To this end, he featured articles and images whose subjects ranged from slaughterhouses to nonwestern tribal arts. Every issue also included a set of “dictionary” entries that treated disparate and often mundane objects and concepts with scientific precision. Copied from monoskop.org/Documents

Wednesday, November 10, 2010

Art and Thingness, Part One: Breton’s Ball and Duchamp’s Carrot, Sven Lütticken



In modern art, the increasing resemblance of art objects to everyday objects raised the threat of eroding of any real difference between works of art and other things. Barnett Newman railed against both Duchamp’s readymades and “Bauhaus screwdriver designers” who were elevated to the ranks of artists by the Museum of Modern Art’s doctrine of “Good Design.”1 The danger for art was the same in both cases: the dissolving of the dividing line between works of art and everyday objects. Just as ancient art proper should never be confused with the craft of “women basket weavers,” modern art should never be confused with a screwdriver or urinal.2 In the 1960s, Clement Greenberg would also worry that a blank sheet of paper or a table would become readable as art, that the boundary between artworks and “arbitrary objects” was eroding.3 While not evincing any Modernist anxieties about readymades, Paul Chan’s recent assertion that “a work of art is both more and less than a thing” shows renewed concerns regarding such an assimilation—in a context marked, until quite recently, by an unprecedented market boom in which works of art seemed to be situated in a continuum of luxury goods spanning from Prada bags to luxury yachts.4

But what does it mean to say that an artwork is both more and less than a thing? The notion of the thing is prominent in contemporary theory, and one might say that the thing has emerged as something that is both more and less than an object. In W. J. T. Mitchell’s words:

“Things” are no longer passively waiting for a concept, theory, or sovereign subject to arrange them in ordered ranks of objecthood. “The Thing” rears its head—a rough beast or sci-fi monster, a repressed returnee, an obdurate materiality, a stumbling block, and an object lesson.5

Rather than building a wall between art and thingness, the work of art should be analyzed as just such a sci-fi monster. If objects are named and categorized, part of a system of objects, thingness is resistant to such ordered objecthood. If we grant that a work of art is both more and less than other types of things, this should not be regarded as an incentive to exacerbate and fetishize those differences, but rather as a point of departure for analyzing the complex interrelationships of artworks with these other things—and for examining certain works of art as problematizing and transforming this very relationship.6

A prominent proponent of the thing in recent theory is Bruno Latour, who has taken it upon himself to reveal “the terrible flaws of dualism,” which marked modernity.7 The hubristic project of modernity was based on the dichotomy of society and nature, of subject and object; this enables the modern “work of purification,” the triumph of the subject and the relegation of nature and of non-moderns to the abyss of thought. Underneath this purifying dichotomy, however, there is a disavowed continuity of networks, of hybrids; modern binary, “critical” thinking exists by virtue of the denial of this continuity, this world of “quasi-objects” and “quasi-subjects”—that which is “between and below the two poles” of object and subject.8 “Moderns do differ from premoderns by this single trait: they refuse to conceptualize quasi-objects as such. In their eyes, hybrids present the horror that must be avoided at all costs by a ceaseless, even maniacal purification.”9

Like all good caricatures, Latour’s portrayal of modernity presents some traits in sharp, even exaggerated clarity. And like many good and bad caricatures, it is one-sided and self-serving. If we look carefully at modern theory and (art) practice, it should be obvious that there have been a number of significant attempts to go beyond a static dichotomy of subject and object. Reexamining such moments can be of extreme interest—not in order to create some kind of oneiric ancestral line leading up to present concerns, but in order to sound out the limitations as well as the unfulfilled potential of various practices. Working though the contradictions of, for instance, the Duchampian readymade can help focus current debates—turning such a historical phenomenon into an anachronistic intervention in the present.

The rejection of the readymade by critics and artists such as Greenberg and Newman was shaped by a fear of the collapse of categories, the fear of identity, of the work of art becoming just another “arbitrary” object. In addition to such critiques, which we may label conservative, the 1960s saw the emergence of a second strand of anti-Duchampian discourse. Its proponents were artists including Dan Graham, Robert Smithson, and Daniel Buren, and an important point that their different criticisms had in common was that Duchamp’s own practice was itself conservative in that it merely seemed to confirm and exploit the existing art-world structures and their power of definition.10 Apparently working on the assumption that Duchamp’s work was fully accounted for by the then-emerging institutional theory of art, these artists felt that Duchamp merely used the institution(s) of art to redefine objects as artworks, thus multiplying their aura, their fetishistic allure, and their value. As Robert Smithson put it, “there is no viable dialectic in Duchamp because he is only trading on the alienated object and bestowing on this object a kind of mystification.”11

Such remarks were no doubt made in view of Duchamp’s own commodification of his readymades in the 1960s, with the Schwartz editions, and of the proliferation of Neo-Dada and Nouveau Réalisme objects, accumulations, and assemblages. This type of art object was tailor-made for the dismal science called the institutional theory of art, which it helped spawn, and which statements by artists such as Buren and Smithson parallel. However, if we look beyond the horizon of the 1960s reception of Duchamp, at the repercussions of the readymade among the surrealists around 1930 in particular, things become rather more complicated and interesting.

Hegel saw modern art as bifurcating into on the one hand a “realist” tendency that would show the surface of objects in minute “objectivity,” and on the other a “spiritual” tendency that would place all the emphasis on the subject.12 For the surrealists, Duchamp’s readymades became crucial at the moment when the question of the relation between subject and object, between spirit and matter, became an overriding concern: when they placed their activities “in the service of the revolution,” entering into a difficult relationship with the party that claimed to represent and enact dialectical materialism, and which eyed the surrealists’ idealist focus on dreams and visions more than a little suspiciously. The surrealists set out to prove that their approach in fact complemented orthodox Marxism, in that surrealism, “within the framework of dialectical materialism, is the only method that accounts for the real links between the world and thought.”13 If dialectical materialism can cause bricks to be laid, then surely this relationship was of primary importance.14

One of the issues of Le Surréalisme au service de la Révolution contained a montage of textual fragments on Hegel and Marx, which contrasted the lackluster number of Hegel’s works available in French with the blockbuster sales of Hegel’s complete works in the Soviet Union, informing us that “the five year plan is founded on dialectics.”15 In the middle of a page is a line drawing of Hegel’s death mask; Spirit has become plaster. If the facts about the prices and sales of Hegel’s works seem to fit into Aragon’s quite linear remarks on spirit influencing things in the world, the death mask complicates things. As an outmoded relic of the nineteenth century, it is a surrealist object par excellence, but it is hardly operative in the contemporary world—unless one instrumentalizes it for the purpose of some Stalinist personality cult.

To some extent, the surrealist art of the object represented an appropriation, a détournement of Duchamp’s project. Surrealist objects were supposed to provide shocks, to give the viewer a jolt, which sets them apart from Duchamp’s more “disinterested” montages of existing objects and new thoughts. What the surrealists saw very clearly, however, is that the Duchampian readymade was, in David Joselit’s words, “a paradoxical object locked in a perpetual oscillation between its status as a thing and its status as a sign.”16 The bottle rack—sometimes called Hedgehog—inscribed with Duchamp’s signature becomes its own double, a visual pun combining Duchamp’s favorite “ism,” eroticism (the phallic protrusions), with references to his arcane geometric and n-dimensional concerns.17 Outwardly, the object remains the same, yet it is dislodged, integrated into the web of signification spun in Duchamp’s notes.

When André Breton’s estate was auctioned off, one of the items for sale was a semiotic object par excellence: a fortune teller’s crystal ball that had been used in 1933 to illustrate Breton’s text “Le Message automatique.”18 In his 1925 “Lettre aux Voyantes,” Breton had addressed the fortune-tellers, or “seers,” who had been marginalized by modern science:

Mesdames, today my mind is wholly on your disgrace. I know that you no longer dare to use your voice, no longer deign to use your all-powerful authority except within the woeful “legal” limits. I can see in my mind’s eye the houses you live in, on the fourth floor, in districts more or less remote from the cities.19

Breton pleads with the “ladies” that it is time for them to give up their passivity and reclaim their proper role. The crystal ball, smaller than one would expect on the basis of cartoons and comic strips, speaks of the same ambiguity between exalted visions and the banality of banlieue fortune-telling. An exemplary visual object or object-sign, the crystal ball was at the same time a materialization of desire and a dematerialization of the object; a proper surrealist thing.

The last major surrealist exhibition, “Surrealist Intrusion in the Enchanters’ Domain,” which took place in New York in 1960, was also the last collaboration between Duchamp and Breton (after almost forty years, it would lead to a mutual estrangement that lasted until Breton’s death). Breton’s decision to structure the exhibition using a list of mythical “enchanters” sits oddly with Duchamp’s nouveau réalisme–style environment, with its toy trains, clock, and real chickens. The catalog features another Duchampian contribution: an embossed reproduction of the electrical sign, a double red cone called a carotte, that identified French tobacconist’s shops.20 As a “virtual” readymade that does not actually exist as a three-dimensional object, this relief, existing in between two and three dimensions, has obvious connections with Duchamp’s n-dimensional speculations. In the context of the early 1960s, it also seems to acknowledge that the readymade has become its own image, that capitalism has turned itself into a forest of signs. The tobacconist’s sign makes the crystal ball look like old hat.

In the postwar decades, the old three-dimensional tobacconist’s cones were being replaced by graphic, two dimensional versions; this transformation suggests that Duchamp here opted for an object that was fast becoming obsolete, but which allowed him to play with dimensions in a more interesting way than the new version. For the most part, of course, Duchamp’s readymades refrain from a surrealist flirt with the obsolete, with outmoded commodities, with the debris of Walter Benjamin’s Second-Empire Paris, with the refuse of modernity’s myths; neither, of course, do the readymades constitute montages in the manner of Dali’s lobster-telephone. Once could see an impetus at work in many surrealist objects that, in a less extreme and overt way than Greenberg or Newman, aims at establishing and emphasizing differences—at distinguishing these objects from “arbitrary objects” by imbuing them with signs of the psyche, of subjectivity. While many surrealist objects emphasize that they “function symbolically,” the readymades do not.

In this, ironically, they foreshadow in their own way the future of the commodity, in an archaic guise: they announce the profusion of goods that are bought for their coded distinctiveness in the later twentieth and early twenty-first centuries. In the 1970s this becoming-sign of the object would lead Jean Baudrillard to diagnose fundamental changes in capitalism by supplementing the categories of use value and exchange value with his concept of sign value. Referencing Bauhaus furniture, with its “functionalism” that has become style, become sign, Baudrillard effectively theorized an economy in which the circulation of sign value creates exchange value, in which commodity fetishism stops being an illusion and becomes a reality.21 While Baudrillard noted that exchange value is based on “equivalence” and sign value on “difference,” the latter is at the service of the former: the difference between Brand A and Brand B is expressed in prices that are subject to the law of exchange, hence of equivalence. This triumph of fetishism—of commodity fetishism as an active agent—results in object-signs that suppress most traces of their history, of their trajectories. Their lives seem to be lived in a realm of pure semiosis. Are the readymades and the surrealist objects they helped spawn not just as crucial to this development as Bauhaus furniture—or Bauhaus screwdrivers?22

David Joselit has equated the readymade’s “oscillation between its status as a thing and its status as a sign” with the fundamental tension between material commodities and immaterial networks in the modern economy.23 However, the readymade-as-sign is primarily part of a network of signification created by Duchamp’s other objects and texts; in this sense, the readymade is indeed the model for the branded commodity and for “actually existing fetishism.” The consumption of the pre-existing object by the artist and its use for the production of new value is presented as a purely semiotic operation, and the readymade’s trajectory in different economical networks is obscured. In a roundabout way, we seem to have arrived back at the point of departure—at a rejection of the readymade as mystifying and complicit in an ever-intensifying process of commodification. Were the surrealists then entirely deluded in regarding Duchamp’s readymades as object lessons in “thingifying” desires in ways that radically differed from alienating commodity-objects?

In a letter to Walter Benjamin, Theodor W. Adorno described the latter’s notion of the dialectical image in terms that seem to emphasize Benjamin’s indebtedness to Surrealism: Adorno stated that “if the use value of things dies,” these alienated and hollowed-out objects can come to be charged with new subjectivity. While the things become “images” of subjective intentions, this does not erase their thingness: dialectical images remain montages, constellations of alienated things and meaning.24 Adorno neither attempts to eradicate the object nor does he recoil from the horror of the hybrid; the ruined object, charged with new subjective intentions means, becomes precisely a quasi-subject, one that offers a glimpse of a world beyond the false objectivity constituted by the quasi-natural “necessities” ruling industrial production. This point needs to be remembered now that we are surrounded by industrialized versions of such quasi-subjects, in which coded difference creates a kind of generic subjectivity that amounts to a thin layer of paint glossing over the substratum of false objectivity. How can one go beyond the limitations of the readymade and retain the project of making things, quasi-objects, that point beyond the limitations of the contemporary commodity?


To be sure, it can be argued that any readymade object will unavoidably be marked by an infra-thin difference in relation to its allotted place in the codified order of objects. In its obtuse materialism, it is always potentially a thing, which is to say: a ruin. In her photographic series Detitled (2000), Barbara Visser saves modern design icons precisely by showing them in a ruined state (in different ruined states, each with its specificities). And is it not the task of critics and art historians to bring out the work of art’s potential, the ways in which it resists complete assimilation into the order of things? If we answer this in the affirmative, we should also ask ourselves whether such an exercise cannot also, at some point, become an exercise in self-delusion. Even if we try to help the neo-readymade by deconstructing it, bringing its complexities and contradictions to the fore, such operations leave intact the structural limitations of the logic of readymade, as brought out by its decades-long, crushing success.

Like Duchamp’s and the surrealists’ practices, Adorno’s remark is limited by its focus on giving new meaning to existing objects—on producing meaning, and ultimately value, by consuming objects. Of course, such immaterial labor is itself dependent on specific social and economical circumstances and structures, but these remain largely implicit with Duchamp, and even more so with the surrealists. For all the productive and viable elements in the dialectic of object and subject that marks their mutant commodities, it remains rather abstract and idealist. If one wants to go beyond the exploration of the semiotic system and explore the readymade’s place in a socio-economical network, such a project—whether in critical writing or in artistic practice—necessarily explodes the logic of the readymade.

Now that the social and ecological consequences of an economy that mystifies production have come home to haunt us, the limitations of the readymade when it comes to intervening in the system of objects are painfully clear. At the same time, the legacy of Soviet productivism, which has often been obscured for decades by the dominance of the type of “Good Design” discourse exemplified by MoMA, takes on a renewed importance.

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→ Continued in “Art and Thingness, Part Two: Thingification” in issue 15.

above copied from: http://e-flux.com/journal/view/112